Sanatan Dharma

Updated on: 08-Nov-2024 - Updated Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika section

Updated on: 28-June-2024 - Updated Part III - Basic texts - Six Philosophical Systems of sanAtana dharma

Part III - Basic texts, Chapter 2/2 - Six Philosophical Systems of sanAtana dharma

This is Part III - Basic texts, Chapter 2/ 2 

Table of Contents

21.9. Six Philosophical systems of sanAtana dharma

Orthodox systems are those which accept the authority of the Vedas, while the heterodox systems are those which reject it. To the latter group belong the three systems of Charvaka, Buddhism and Jainism.

The ‘shaddarshana-s’, or the six systems of Indian philosophy belong to the former group. These systems are called

Purva Mimamsa (Vedas).

Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta.

Samkhya.

Yoga.

Nyaya.

Vaisesika.

We can put them in pairs of two

Veda-s and Vedānta

Sāṇkhya and Yoga

Nyāya and Vaiśeṣikha

The nāstika (atheist) schools are (in chronological order) They reject vedas:

Cārvāka – Believes only what can be perceived. Rational thinking.

Jainism – offshoot of Hinduism, Independent system. Some say, actual Jain Dharma is thiest and talk about Brahman as Jina Tatva.

Buddhism – off shoot of Hinduism, independent system. Does not accept vedas or God, theory of Shunya (zero), nihilism.

They generally deal with four topics:

• Existence and nature of Brahman 

• Nature of the jiva or the individual soul 

• Creation of the jagat or the world.

• Moksha or liberation and the disciplines that lead to it.

Added on 28-June-2024

In the earlier article titled 'What are basic texts of Hindu Dharma?', we had discussed in detailed about various philosophical systems.

Now, we will try to understand the six philosophical systems in from the view point of Īśvara (God / Supreme Godhead / Supreme God Consciousness)

1. Veda-s (Pūrva Mimāmsā)

There are many Gods or Devatā-s and Devi-s that are worshipped. Veda-s themselves give the fruits of karma.

There is no central controlling authority which controls all the devatā-s.

2. Upaniṣad-s / Vedanta (Uttara Mimāmsā)

There is a central controlling authority who controls all devatā-s and the creation. Jīva is dependent upon Īśvara. Depending upon the sidhānta (philosophy) and the Sampradāya (Tradition like Vaiṣṇava, Smārta and Advaita, etc) Jīva is either eternal but dependent upon Īśvara and Māyā for its existence as in Vaiṣṇava  or Jīva is just a hbāva or the feeling that assumes doership and becomes doer. The moment this sense of doership is released by sādhanā and Jñāna (both by śāstra-s and direct experience). one becomes witness and stays as a witness, thus detaching the 'I' from body-mind-ego complex and realises oneself as Ātmā / Ātman. This Ātmā or 'I' is verily the Brahman of the Upaniṣad-s. There are many Jīva-s but Ātmā is only one and this Ātmā is Brahman.

Upon attaining sufficient inner purity, one has to quit the worship of many Devatā-s and start meditating on the Self or Brahman or Īśvara.

There are three types of Brahman in our śāstra-s

1. Nirguṇa - Nirākāra Brahman - the attributeless (without qualities) and formless Brahman

2. Saguṇa - Nirākāra Brahman - with attributes / qualities and formless

3. Saguṇa - Sākāra Brahman - with attributes / qualities and having form

Nirguṇa - Nirākāra Brahman - the attributeless (without qualities) and formless Brahman

This Brahman is the Brhaman of the Upaniṣad-s. It is beyond Māyā / Prakriti which is the creative energy of Brahman. It is said to be Sattā mātra meaning pure existence only (sattā = existence / presence nad mātra = only). It does not create, preserve or destroy. One can only stay in this state of Advaita i.e. non-dual state. 

Saguṇa - Nirākāra Brahman - with attributes / qualities and formless

This form of Brahman, though formless, has qualities and ability to create, preserve, destroy, control and bless / grace the devotees using its own energy Māyā. It is the controller of Māyā It is the Paramātmā of the Yogī-s.

Saguṇa - Sākāra Brahman - with attributes / qualities and having form

This Brahman has the attributes and also has a form. It manifests in many forms like Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Maheśa, Devi Ambā / Ādi Śakti and Gaṇeśa.

This Brahman can also perform the same duties and has same powers as that of Saguṇa - Nirākāra Brahman (2nd one) and can manifest in many forms for the sake of devotees. One can easily attach and develop devotion and faith to this form of Īśvara. 

3. Sānkhya / Sāṃkhya

There is no Īśvara is Sānkhya. There is Puruṣa and Prakriti. Puruṣa is omniscient , omnipotent, and the only tattva (entity) that is Self-aware or Self-conscious. It is the state of complete detachment or complete isolation known as Kaivalya. This Puruṣa is not created nor creates anything. It does not take part in the creation. Everything other than the Puruṣa is non-sentient including Prakriti, Intellect (Buddhi), Ego (Ahaṃkāra) and Mind (Mana). It is due to the proximity with the Puruṣa that all these tattva-s gain the power of consciousness and they become active. Prakriti consists of three guṇa-s - sattva, rajasa and tamasa. In a state prior to the creation these three guṇa-s (qualities) are in equilibrium, when under the influence of Puruṣa, they agitate and Prakriti creates other Linga tatttva-s i.e. manifest tattva-s, 23 in total, 24th being Prakriti herself. It is the Prakriti which creates by herself without any direction or control of Puruṣa. 

Sānkhya does not find any need to accept the existence of Īśvara. The final goal is to attain Kaivalya Mukti or complete isolation with 24 tattva and reside in the 25th tattva i.e. Puruṣa which is the Self. 

As per Sānkhya only Puruṣa and Prakriti are eternal and unborn reality. It believes in Aneka Puruṣa vāda meaning in many Puruṣa-s or Souls. In Advaita state of Nirvikalpa Samādhi, there is absence of Māyā (Prakriti) and hence Prakriti is not eternal. Also there are many Jīva-s (souls), but only under ignorance. In the state of Jñāna (Self Realisation), there is only one Ātman and that is none other than Brahman. Sānkhya and Yoga are dualistic philosophies.

4. Yoga

Sānkhya is the ideological school and Yoga is its meditative application. Yoga is based on Sānkhya. One cannot understand Yoga Sūtra-s of Patanjali without Vyāsa's commentary which is known as Sānkhya Pravachana meaning commentary [based on] Sāknhya. 

For practical purpose, Yoga accepts the existence of Īśvara and gives it high importance. As per Yoga Sūtra-s of Patanjali, Praṇava or OM describes Īśvara. One must chant OM along with contemplation of its meaning. Surrender to Īśvara is highly prescribed. It is known as Īśvara Praṇidhāna meaning taking refuge in Īśvara. Though it implies Īśvar is formless, contemplation on Īṣṭa devatā (chosen deity) is considered beneficial. Īśvara is beyond space and time and is full knowledge or completeness.

However, the role of Īśvara is very limited. It doe not create, preserve or destroy the world, it is done by Prakriti herself. This is because Yoga is based on Sānkhya. It can bless the devotee.

It ultimate purpose of Yoga is to attain Samādhi. It is known as Dharma Megha Samādhi. Here Dharma is generally translated as Virtue which is not wrong, but I would prefer to translate it as 'Jñāna' i.e. knowledge, knowledge of the Self. Megha means cloud. Here it means clould of knowledge, the water in the cloud is the knowledge of Puruṣa. Samādhi is complete absorption of mind in the essence of mantra or in the source of mantra. To give an analogy, it is by following one's dharma which is contemplating on Self / Īśvara one attains nirbīja Samādhi. Just like if there is heavy rain, whether one likes or not, one gets completely wet, similarly, when one drops all desires including the desire to attain moksha, then the rain of knowledge spontaneously saturates the Self and  one becomes fully saturated i.e. established in Self or Ātmā or Puruṣa. This complete absorption in the Self when every desire is dropped is known as Dharma Megha Samādhi. It happens by the power of own Self referred to as 'Chiti Śakti'. Th world Nir-bīja means without any seed. The seed (Bīja) is the seed of desires. It is complete emptying of mind.

5 & 6 Nyāya and Vaiśeṣikha 

Updated on 06-Nov-2024

Vaiśeṣikha is an extension of Nyāya. It is known as theory of Atomism. As per Nyāya,  Īśvara is an eternal entity which gives fruits of karma. However, there is not much discussion about Īśvara. Mukti or Apavarga i.e. liberation is the final release from the cycle of birth and death (transmigration, Sansaraṇa). Nothing is permanent in this world and everything has to be renounced. When this happens, the Jīva or Puruṣa, after the death of body, there is no carrying forward of any of the karma-s or desires or fruits or emotions or of mind. Also there is no eternal happiness as such in Svarga (Heaven). The final release or Apavarga is rising above the cycle of birth and death. Nyāya Sūtra-s (N.Su 1.1.1) begins with saying that the Supreme Happiness or eternal Bliss is attained by true knowledge of sixteen categories. It goes on to list them and Īśvara is not one of them. It simply says 'object of right knowledge (prameya प्रमेय)' as one of the sixteen categories to be known. N.Su. 1.1.9 says "Ātmā, body, senses, objects of sense, intellect, mind, activity, fault, transmigration, fruit, pain and Apavarga (release) - are the objects of right knowledge (prameya)." Book 1, Chapter 1, of Nyāya Sūtra-s of Gautama as translated in English by Mahāmahopādhyāya Shrī Satiśa Candra Vidyābhuṣaṇa, gives definitions of various terms i.e. it explains basic terminology. It explains N.Su. 1.1.10, "Desire, aversion, volition, pleasure, pain and intelligence are the Lingam (marks) of the Ātmā". It does not define Īśvara. Īśvara is discussed in Book 4, Chapter 1, (book page 112, pdf page no 137) N.Su. 4.1.19-21 and then it goes on to explain if there is any cause of creation. It further says, whatever is produced is destroyed (N.Su. 4.1.25) and goes on to argue by objection and refutation and finally proves that whatever is created is destroyed reflecting the Śloka form Bhagavad Gītā 2.16, "Truth has no non-existence whereas untruth / falsity has no existence at any point of time".

Thus knowing Self or Ātmā / Ātman is the objective. It is more closer to Sāṃkhya than Vedānta.

Though Īśvara exists, there is no method or meditative approach to realize it or have a direct experience. This idea is rejected by Vedānta. However there are many concepts that are accepted by Vedānta.

N.Su. 4.2.1 - Through knowledge about the true nature of the causes of faults, there is (nivṛtti) cessation of egotism. Thus it lays emphasis on detachment which results in destruction of ego. This gives rise to true knowledge (of Self).

Nyāya gives logical explanation of many concepts and on the existence of Ātmā / Puruṣa. It also gives ways to establish the existence or absence of anything. These are the testimonies or Pramāṇa-s. It gives upto ten Pramāṇa-s. Different schools of thoughts accepts different pramāṇa-s. Six are important, out of six three and out of three one is important. They are listed in order. Tarka Saṃgrah of Annambhaṭṭa (15th Century) is referred by many to study fundamentals of Nyāya.

Sixteen categories like Pramāṇa (four testimonies), Prameya (object of right knowledge or object worthy to be known), Saṃśaya (doubt), Prayojana (purpose), Vāda (discussion based on truth), Japa (wrangling), Vitaṇḍa (needless objection), etc. are the first things to be known i.e. their nature and their outcome.

It defines Atom as N.Su. 4.2.17, "An atom is that which is not capable of being divided".

न्याय. सू. ४.२.१७ परं वा त्रुटेः = त्रुटि, truṭi = Atom

The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra-s discuss about an underlying force which is 'adṛṣṭa' (unseen). This force is the source of everything, of movement of atoms from one place to another and is the source of Bhāva (sentiment) which is the cause of Dharma and Adharma. Thus this  'adṛṣṭa' (unseen) is the intelligence that is spread everywhere and is possessed by Ātmā (Individual Jīva) and regulates ever movement even though the movement is invisible. The adṛṣṭa (unseen) is of atomic in size i.e. it is indivisible implying it is the smallest fundamental building block of everything.  

This is different from Sāṃkhya which says Prakriti consisting of three guṇa-s - Sattva, Rajasa and Tamasa is the fundamental building block of everything and it is she who is the ultimate source of creation of tattva-s and the worlds. In contract Vaiśeṣika says it is the smallest indivisible atoms that are spread everywhere throughout the universe that are the cause of creation or any movement. Since they are cause of movement, they are the cause of creation as creation implying movement. 

This Adṛṣṭa (Unseen) is overseen by Īśvara and eternal omnipresent entity. It upholds the authority of Veda-s and so the existence of Īśvara which gives names i.e. meaning to everything. Adṛṣṭa (Unseen), the universal  invisible subtle atomic force, works under the desire of Īśvara.

References to adṛṣṭa (unseen) can be found in V.Su. 6.2.1, V.Su. 6.2.12 (the commentary Upaskāra explains Adṛṣṭa (Unseen) to be universal cause), V.Su. 5.2.13. 

Ref: https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/vaisheshika-sutra-commentary 

Both Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika argue that without cause there is no effect. Thus if creation exists, then Īśvara too exists. 

Reference can be found in V.Su. 2.1.18, V.Su. 2.1.19 (refer commentary Upskāra which refers to the word Īśvara) 

Since I am not an expert on Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika, I will leave it to the experts to point out the issue. I would be grateful to him / her who gives clarification at indiaspirituality [at] gmail [dot] com.

Summary

Veda-s: Many devatā-s and devi-s but no central controlling authority.

Vedānta / Upaniṣads: There is a central controlling authority which controls all devatā-s and devi-s. Worship of many devatā-s is to be renounced and one must meditate on the Supreme Brahman.

Sānkhya: No concept of Īśvara. Puruṣa is like Nirguṇa Brahman of Upaniṣads. It does not create anything i.e does not take part in creation. It is just a witness and the only sentient tattva (Entity). Th world is created by Prakriti herself without any guidance or control of Puruṣa. The ultimate goal is to attain Kaivalya Mukti which is complete isolation from all 24 tattva-s and knowing their true nature. 

Yoga: The goal is the same as Sānkhya but it accepts Īśvara and taking refuge in Īśvara is given high importance. The role of Īśvara is limited though Īśvara is beyond space and time and is complete knowledge or fullness. It is described by OM. The creation, preservation and destruction is done by Prakriti. Īśvara can bless the devotee.

Nyāya and Vaiśeṣikha: Īśvara is an eternal tattva (entity) that gives fruits of Karma. There is not much discussion on the role of Īśvara as it is in Vedānta and Purāṇa-s. Though Īśvara exists, there is no method or meditative approach to realise it or have a direct experience. Apavarga or final release or Liberation is to come out of cycle of birth and death i.e. transmigration (sansaraṇa). Right knowledge arises by destruction of Ego and false identity of Ātmā with body, etc and attachment to non-eternal objects. Detachment through right means of knowledge which is true knowledge of Sixteen categories.

As per Vaiśeṣika, there is an underlying invisible force referred as 'adṛṣṭa' (unseen) which is the cause of every movement and also gives fruits of Dharma and Adharma. It is also the cause of creation. Īśvara, is eternal, omnipresent, omniscient being who oversees the Adṛṣṭa (Unseen) and it is under the will and desire of Īśvara that Aḍṛṣṭa works. This Aḍṛṣṭa is the fundamental building block of everything, of the universe and is of atomic size, the smallest size, which cannot be further divided i.e. it is indivisible. Apavarga or final liberation or beautitude is freedom from the cycle of birth and death i.e. freedom from Saṃsaraṇa (transmigration).

Why are there so many contradictions?

This is a common question which arises in the mind of a seeker. One philosophy gives importance to one concept or one way of life, second eulogizes another way of life refuting the first view. How to make out what is correct? how to harmonise the teachings? The answer is given in Nyāya Sūtra-s 

अधिकाराच्च विधानं विद्यान्तरवत् ॥ 4 । 1 । 61 ॥ - Mahāmahopādhyāya Satiśa Candra Vidyābhuṣaṇa.

अधिकाराच्य विधानं विद्यान्तरवत् ॥ 4 । 1 । 61 ॥ - Sriram Sharma Acharya

N.Su. 4.1.61 - "An injunction must be appropriate to its occasion just as a topic must be appropriate to the treatise which deals with it. "

Commentary by Mahāmahopādhyāya Satiśa Candra Vidyābhuṣaṇa (Book page no 124, pdf page no 149):

A treatise on Logic which is to deal with its own special problems cannot be expected to treat of etymology and syntax which form the subject of a separate treatise. A sacred book which professes to deal with the life of a householder can appropriately bestow every encomium on him. A certain Vedic text extols karma by saying that immortality is attained by the force of one's own acts, while another text lays down as a compliment to asceticism that immortality cannot be attained except through renunciation. Some text declares emphatically that it is by the knowledge of Brahma alone that one can attain immortality, there is no other way to it. There are again certain texts which attach an equal importance to study, sacrifice and charity each of which is to be perform-ed by us at the different stages of our life. Hence a text which aims at extolling the life of a householder can, without creating any misapprehension in us, lay down that as Boon as we are born we incur three debts which we must go on clearing off until the time of our decay and death.

This is the end of explanation of 'Why there are so many contradictions?'. There are inconsistencies in the śloka-s which is addressed in the next section, however the explanation remains the same. The śloka N.Su. 4.1.61 quoted above is not found to be separate sūtra but it is a part of Vātsyāyana Bhāṣya (commentary) on N.Su. 4.1.60. the same is explained below. Those not interested can skip to next section - 'Ten Testimonies (Pramāṇa-s) of Nyāya'

Notes: 

अधिकाराच्च विधानं विद्यान्तरवत् ॥ 4 । 1 । 61 ॥ - Mahāmahopādhyāya   Satiśa   Candra Vidyābhuṣaṇa.

अधिकाराच्य विधानं विद्यान्तरवत् ॥ 4 । 1 । 61 ॥ - Sriram Sharma Acharya

N.Su. 4.1.61 - "An injunction must be appropriate to its occasion just as a topic must be appropriate to the treatise which deals with it. "

This śloka is not found. It its place, the following śloka is found 

न्याय. सू. ४.१.६१ समारोपणादात्मन्यप्रतिषेधः which is śloka 62 in his edition (Satīśa Candra's version). and #4.1.62 is

न्याय. सू. ४.१.६२ पात्रचयान्तानुपपत्तेश्च फलाभावः - this śloka is absent in other editions like commentary by Vāchaspati Miśra.

Sriram Sharma Acharya's commentary does have this śloka

न्याय. सू. ४.१.६१ - अधिकाराच्य विधानं विद्यान्तरवत् ॥ ६९॥ - Sriram Sharma Acharya (Book page No 184, pdf page no 184)

न्याय. सू. ४.१.६१ - अधिकाराच्च विधानं विद्यान्तरवत् ॥ 4 । 1 । 61 ॥ - Mahāmahopādhyāya Satiśa Candra Vidyābhuṣaṇa (Book page no 124, pdf page no 149)

However, the very similar Sanskrit line is found in the Nyāya Sūtra Bhāṣya by Vātsyāyana on Śloka 4.1.60. Vāchaspati Miśra in his commentary also discusses similar issue.

The line is - अधिकाराच् च विधानं विद्यान्तरवत्। - commentary by Vātsyayana on Nyāya Sūtra 4.1.60. The commentary continues - 

यथा शास्त्रान्तराणि स्वे स्वेऽधिकारे प्रत्यक्षतो विधायकानि नार्थान्तराभावाद् एवम् इदं ब्राह्मणं गृहस्थशास्त्रं स्वेऽधिकारे प्रत्यक्षतो विधायकं नाश्रमान्तराणाम् अभावाद् इति।

Source: https://sa.m.wikisource.org/wiki/न्यायसूत्रभाष्यम् 

https://www.ebharatisampat.in/read_chapter?bookid=Njg1MDY5MjM3MjMwMDkz

https://www.ebharatisampat.in/readbook3?bookid=NDMzMjM2NzQyNTA1Mjcx&pageno=MjI0MjQyNjk5NTk=

अधिकाराच् च विधानं विद्यान्तरवत्। यथा शास्त्रान्तराणि स्वे स्वेऽधिकारे प्रत्यक्षतो विधायकानि नार्थान्तराभावाद् एवम् इदं ब्राह्मणं गृहस्थशास्त्रं स्वेऽधिकारे प्रत्यक्षतो विधायकं नाश्रमान्तराणाम् अभावाद् इति।

In simple words - An injunction must be appropriate to its occasion just as a topic must be appropriate to the treatise which deals with it. Different śāstra-s teach  and advice based eligibility. Their injunctions are correct in their own right keeping the context in mind. Thus the difference of opinion of one śāstra may differ with another. The absence of other opinion does not mean that the other opinion is refuted. The śāstra propagating the life of a Brāhmaṇa householder will eulogize householder's life (Gṛhastha Āśrama) is correct in its own right in its context. The absence of mention of life of a renunciate (Sanyāsa Āśrama)  does not mean it is refuted or is not important.

Vāchaspati Miśra also gives similar argument. While explaining Niḥshreyasa bheda says the same thing. Niḥshreyasa means 'knowledge that brings Ultimate Bliss' or 'Final Beatitude', 'Ultimate Bliss' implying Final Release or Moksha or Apavarga.

स्यादेतत् ।

व्युत्पाद्याश्चेत्प्रमाणादयः सर्वविद्योपयोगिनः, तर्ह्रात्यन्तिकी दुखः निवृत्तिरान्वीक्षिक्याः फलं निःश्रेयसपदादवगम्यते ।

व्युत्पाद्यस्वभावालोचनया हि तद्गम्यते, स च विद्यान्तरसाधारण इति विद्यान्तराधिगम्येन निःश्रेयसेन सङ्करप्रसङ्ग इत्यत आहतदिदं तत्त्वज्ञानं निःश्रेयसाधिगमश्च यथाविद्यं वेदितव्यम् ।

विद्यान्तराणि तावद्यत्तत्त्वज्ञानं कुर्वन्ति तत्स्वभावालोचनया हि तद्विद्यासाध्ये एव निःश्रेयसभदे उपयुज्यन्ते नान्यत्र ।

इह तु प्रमाणादि यद्यपि साधारणम्, तथाप्यसाधारणात्मादिरूपप्रमयसमभिव्याहृतं सदभिमत एव निःश्रेयसेःवतिष्ठत इति ।

Vāchaspati Miśra in his commentary on Nyāya Sūtra-s says -

Simple translation - By criticizing the nature of the knowledge of the truth (tattvajñāna) so far as the other knowledges are concerned, they are used only in the accomplishment of that knowledge in the assembly of the ultimate good, and not for any other purpose.

The point is the śāstra-s like Samhitā part of veda-s eulogizing karma kāṇḍa (fire rituals) will criticize Jñāna Mārga i.e. path of Knowledge which asks one to renounce the fire rituals. This does not mean path of knowledge is inferior. The injunction and the testimonies supporting it are given they are given for the greater good. 

One can understand any concept or injunction better by way of criticism. One knows its strength and limitations and where it is applicable and to whom it is applicable i.e. seekers of truth or meditators of different level of inner purification and mental makeup. In other words, it is an art of learning.

If a person whose mental makeup is to do vaidika karma is stopped from doing it, and he does not qualify for the path of renunciation, then his spiritual progress will stop. In order to avoid it, eulogizing all paths is done and in this process it is nature to downgrade other paths or opinions, not because someone is jealous or is hateful or highly egoistic as if proclaiming 'Only my path is true path'. It is done for greater good so that a people of all types of intellects and mental makeups can make progress and then when they qualify, they can move ahead to another path or adopt another siddhanta which they are now capable of applying that supposedly contradictory knowledge in their meditative life as they have achieved sufficient inner purity. 

The boat has reached the other side of river, now it is time to unboard and leave the boat. It can no longer take you to your destination. Renuciation of boat is must though earlier its non-sinking ability was eulogized to give you confidence to sit in it.

References: 

Nyaya sutra-s in Sanskrit with various commentaries - Sanskrit World Website.

Since I am not an expert on Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika, I will leave it to the experts to point out the issue. I would be grateful to him / her who gives clarification at indiaspirituality [at] gmail [dot] com.

Those who wish to know the ten testimonies can read further.

Ten Testimonies (Pramāṇa-s) of Nyāya

There are six important Pramāṇa-s in Sad-darśana-s (Six systems of philosophy)

Pratyaksha (प्रत्यक्ष), Anumāna (अनुमान), Śabda (शब्द), Upamāna (उपमान), Arthāpatti (अर्थापत्ति), Anupalabdhi (अनुपलब्धि).

Rest four are Aitihya (ऐतिह्य), Sambhava (सम्भव), Cheṣṭā (चेष्टा), and Pariśeṣa (परिशेष). These four are not as much important as the first six. They are given as Śrī Vāchaspati Miśra in his commentary on Saankhya Kārikā has explained two more pramāṇa-s – Sambhava and Aitihya. Cheṣṭā, and Pariśeṣa are not included in the commentary on relevant Kārikā in which explanation is given for all other pramāṇa-s merge in the accepted three.

1. Pratyaksha (प्रत्यक्ष) – Perception – that which is directly perceived – like seeing, hearing, etc. It also includes mental perception like ‘I am sad, I am angry, I am happy’, etc. It includes knowledge through five senses, mind and pure consciousness.

2. Anumāna (अनुमान) – Inference – that which can be concluded or known by logic i.e. logical deduction e.g. by seeing rising smoke, one can conclude that fire exists though it is not seen or perceived directly. Knowing an object on the basis of another known object is anumāna. Here the fire is called "sādhya" and the means by which we infer its presence (the reason of inference) i.e. smoke is ‘sādhana’, ‘linga’ or ‘hetu’. There has to be a direct connection between sādhya (lingi) and sādhana (linga).

3. Śabda (शब्द) – Verbal testimony – given in veda-s or other śāstra-s or sayings of great saints / rishis / gurus are treated as an authority, as a Śabda Pramāṇa. This is known by various other names like āgama or āpta-vachana. Apta means a person or a Yogī who does not speak lie and is an authority on the subject matter. His words (vachana) are considered as reliable and trustworthy. In other words, a Self Realised Yogī or a Jñānī is an āpta and his vachana (sayings) are considered as an authority as such a person has experienced highest truth. It is not just the information gathered from reading śāstra-s.

4. Upamāna (उपमान) – Comparison – knowledge of an unknown object derived from a similar known object. For example, if one needs to know an ox or bull (i.e. gavaya गवय – animal that which looks similar to cow having similar horns, tail, hoofs, etc) which he has never seen it earlier but has a cow at home. In this case a person goes to a forest or can spy on a neighbour who has an ox or a bull and then try to search it on the basis – this Ox or bull looks similar to cow. A person can thus spot an Ox or a Bull (wild buffalo) as it is much similar to a cow. 

5. Arthāpatti (अर्थापत्ति) – Presumption – Presumption of a fact based on knowledge of two different facts. For example, "The fat Devadatta doesn't eat during daytime". Though Devadatta does not eat during daytime, he still remains a fat fellow. How? We guess that he must be eating at night. There is something contradictory about an individual not eating and still not being thin. Here arthāpatti helps us to discover the cause of Devadatta being fat. Our guess that he eats at night does not belong to the category of anumāna. To make an inference (anumāna) there must be a hint or clue in the original statement itself. There must be a "linga" (evidence) like smoke from fire, thunder from clouds. Here there is no such linga.

6. Anupalabdhi (अनुपलब्धि) or abhāva (अभाव) – non-existence / non-apprehension – means by which we can know the abhāva (non-existence) of an object. Suppose someone tells us, "Go and see if the elephant is in the stable". We go to the stable to see for ourselves whether or not the elephant is there. We find that there is no elephant in the stable: to recognise such absence (non-existence) is anupalabdhi.

7. Aitihya (ऐतिह्य) – Tradition or legend – is the knowledge obtained from tradition of which the source is unknown and has been handed down from one generation to another. Many of our beliefs are based on tradition. It is a source of knowledge admitted by the historians (Paurāṇikā-s). According to the Nyāyikā-s (Nyāya) it is a kind of śabda, but a śabda which is not to be regarded as e pramāṇa, because it is not certain whether the person from whom the tradition originated was an apta (speaker of the truth, trusted authority) or not. It is only the words of truthful person (āpta) whose words are a pramāṇa and are a source of new knowledge.

8. Sambhava (सम्भव) – Inclusion – Sambhava as a source of new knowledge consists in the process of knowing something on account of its being included in some other known thing. For example, when you know a knife, you know the blade also which is a part of the former. The knowledge of a foot (bigger unit of measurement) Involves also the knowledge of an inch (smaller unit of measurement).

9. Cheṣṭā (चेष्टा) – Gesture – Knowledge obtained from gestures and body language. Chesta or gesture is also a source of new knowledge. For example, we know that a dumb fellow is hungry by the gestures that he makes. We also come to know the thoughts and feelings of other people by their gestures end postures i.e. , by their bodily expressions. It is a kind of anumāna (inference) as the sign is a linga (evidence, sādhana) through which one gains knowledge of lingi or sādhya. The relation of linga and lingi are known through repeated experience.

10. Pariśeṣa (परिशेष) – Elimination – Eliminating known objects or person to find out unknown object or person from that group. Pariśeṣa or Elimination is the process of knowing something by eliminating from a group of things those which it is not. For example, it happens sometimes that we know a person to be somebody by eliminating others already known from the group where that person has been told to be present.

For details please visit website created by Hindu Dharma by Kanchi Kamakoti Matt Ch 13 – Nyaya - Part 1 - Science of Reasoning | Part 3 - Pramanas. Another Source is also helpful.

Six Darśana-s and their accepted pramāṇa-s

Pratyaksha (प्रत्यक्ष), Anumāna (अनुमान), Śabda (शब्द), Upamāna (उपमान), Arthāpatti (अर्थापत्ति), Anupalabdhi (अनुपलब्धि).

Perception, Inference, Verbal Testimony, Comparison, Presumption, Non-existence / Absence.

1 Pramāṇa

Chārvāka (चार्वाक)

2 Pramāṇa-s

Vaiśeṣika (वैशेषिक) (even Baudha and Jaina accept 2 testimonies) [1]

3 Pramāṇa-s

Sānkhya Darśana (सांख्य दर्शन), Yoga Darśana (योग दर्शन), Vaiṣṇava Vedānta sampradāya-s (वैष्णव वेदांत संप्रदाय)

4 Pramāṇa-s

Nyāya  Darśana (न्याय दर्शन)

5 Pramāṇa-s

Prabhākara’s pūrva mīmāmsā (प्रभाकर पूर्व मीमांसा)

6 Pramāṇa-s

Pūrva mīmāmsā school of Kumārila Bhaṭṭa (भाट्ट मीमांसा), Advaita Vedānta (अद्वैत वेदांत)

[1]       Dr. Rakesh Shastri in his translation of Sānkhya Kārikā with Gauḍāpada Bhāṣya (Hindi) has mentioned Vaiśeṣika accepting four (4) pramāṇa-s.

However, Vaiśeṣika Sūtra-s with Śaṅkara Miśra’s commentary Upaskāra accepts only two pramāṇa-s - Pratyaksha and Anumāna.

In Vaiśeṣika Sūtra 9.2.5 translated by Shri Nandlal Sinha (page 287-290, pdf page 325-328), as per Vaiśeṣika Darśana,

Upamāna, Arthāpatti and Anupalabdhi (abhāva) are included under Anumāna,  

Śabda too is included under Anumāna (inference) but this inference has to be verified else it can be rejected. So, it has to be Pratyaksha. Hence Śabda too depends upon Pratyaksha and Anumāna.

So, there are only two main Pramāṇa-s accepted by Vaiśeṣika Sūtra 9.2.5 as per Śaṅkara Miśra’s commentary called Upaskāra (written in 15th century).

Source: Wisdomlib.org | Archive.org

Dr. Rakesh Shastri has also mentioned that Baudha Darśana (Buddhist philosophy) accepts only two pramāṇa-s - Pratyaksha (प्रत्यक्ष), Anumāna (अनुमान)

He also mentions that the Purāṇa-s accept eight pramāṇa-s

The idea behind accepting lesser pramāṇa-s is either there is no practical use of them to understand that phisolophy or the later ones are included or merge in former one. 

Six are important. Out of Six, first three are important. Out of three Pratyaksha is the supreme testimony.

Hari OM